SMALLER KINGDOMS

SMALLER KINGDOMS

Among the smaller kingdoms that came up on the Sultanate's decline, Jaunpur and Bengal in the east and Malwa and Gujarat in the west are important. Besides, Kashmir was an independent kingdom in the north.

JAUNPUR Malik Sarw~r, with the title Malik-ush-Sharq, who was governor of Jaunpur from 1394, threw off the allegiance to the Delhi Sultanate in the confusion following Timur's invasion, and asserted independence.

Malwa

Gujrat

Rajasthan

Mewar

Marwar

Amber

Kashmir

Bengal

LAND TENURES IN THE VIJAYANAGAR ADMINIS­TRATION

LAND TENURES IN THE VIJAYANAGAR ADMINIS­TRATION There were three broad categories of land tenures during the Vijayanagar rule: amara, bhandaravada and manya.

Amara villages granted to the amaranayaks by the Vijayanagar rulers were the largest category of land tenure. The amaranayak lacked proprietary rights in land and enjoyed privileges over its income only. 75 per cent of all the villages came under this category.

The bhandaravada was a crown village. It was the smallest category of land tenure. A part of its income was used to maintain the forts of the empire.
The manya villages were tax-free villages whose income was used to maintain brahmans, temples and mathas. The period witnessed a great increase in devadana grants, con­ferred on temples, made by the state as compared to other grants.

ADMINISTRATION, SOCIETY AND ECONOMY

ADMINISTRATION, SOCIETY AND ECONOMY The Vijayanagar empire had an autocratic system of adminis­tration. There was an elaborate arrangement of administra­tion at central, provincial and village levels. The chief source of administration was the king who adopted the title of 'Raya'. It is emphasised that the principle of strict adherence to dharma was the distinguishing feature of the Vijayanagar empire. However, it is disputed by many historians.

Many administrative organs of the central administra­tion were constituted. There is a mention of raj parishad and its chief officer mahapradhtini. There was also a council of ministers (mantriparishad) consisting of great scholars of the state. Sabhanayak was the head of the mantriparishad. Other important officials included koshadhyaksha, mudrakarta, vyaparnirikshaka, senapati and nyayadhisha.

The entire kingdom was divided into pranta, mandaI, kottam or valnadu, nadu, melagram and gram. There were six prants (provinces). Each province had a governor appointed by the centre. The provincial governors were called mahamandaleshwar, nadaprabhusa, nayak or mandaleshwar. Their responsibilities included maintaining law and order, ap­pointing subordinate officials, making military arrangement and imposing new taxes.

In rural administration, the rulers of Vijayanagar ac­cepted the local-self government policy of the Chola rulers. However, the village autonomy witnessed a decline during this period due to imposition of a 12-member Ayangar system (involving appointment of 12 officials by the centre) to keep a vigil on the rural administration. Mahanayakacharya appointed by the centre also looked after the local self­government.

The assessment on the peasantry amounted to a little more than the traditional one-sixth of the produce payable in equivalent money and not in kind. Trade, too, was a source of revenue. Punishments for crime were cruel and severe, prostitution was regulated and heavily taxed. On the whole, the country was prosperous and ably adminis­tered.

People used animal food freely although the vegetarian brahmans were held in great honour. The practice of sati was largely prevalent. Women were fairly educated and their services were utilised as clerks in the royal household. The Vijayanagar rulers also had women bodyguards and wrestlers.

The empire of Vijayanagar was one of the richest states of the time. The country was self-sufficient in food and industries flourished, such as textiles, mining and metal­lurgy, and perfumery. Industries and trade were regulated
by guilds. The empire possessed numerous ports and had commercial relations with foreign countries. Gold, silver and copper coins were in use.

DECLINE

DECLINE

After the death of Krishnadeva Raya, power passed into the hands of Rama Raja, son-in-law of Krishnadeva and an able man but ambitious and tactless. He took an active part in the politics of the Muslim states CY Bijapur and Ahmadnagar and supported the one against the other, changing sides as it suited his interests. This so irfcensed the Muslim rulers that they all, except for Berar, formed a confederacy a~inst Vijayanagar. They defeated the Vijayanagar forces at Bannihatti near Talikota in 1565. The Vijayanaga! empire thus came to an end.

Some places like Madurai, Thanjavur and Jingi came to be ruled by local chiefs or nayakas, while a new dynasty was set up at Penugonda. This was known as the Aravidu dynasty, founded by Rama Raja's brother, Thirumala. Venkata II (1585-1614) was the most important ruler of this dynasty.
He removed the capital to Chandragiri and maintained the empire intact. It was during his reign that the English and the Dutch began to establish themselves on the east coast of India.

THE TULUVA DYNASTY

THE TULUVA DYNASTY

Nasra Nayak died in 1505, and was succeeded by his son Vira Narasimha as the regent. He very soon deposed the Suluva ruler and laid the foundation of the Tuluva dynasty; this event is known as the 'Second Usurpation'.
Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1529) was the greatest ruler of the Tuluva d.ynasty and the Vijayanagar empire. His most notable military achievement was the recovery of the Raichur Doab from Bijapur. Under him the kingdom of Vijayanagar reached the height of its prestige and prosper­ity. Krishnadeva Raya was noted for his religious zeal, tolerance, hospitality to foreigners, love of literature and purity of life. He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese governor Albuquerque, and gave him permis­sion to build a fort at Bhatkal.

THE SULUVA DYNASTY

THE SULUVA DYNASTY

After 1465 there was a period of disorder as the rulers were weak. The Bahmanis, the king of Orissa, and the Pandyas renewed their aggression. The situation was saved by Narasimha Suluva, governor of Chandragiri, who seized the throne in about 1486. This event is known as the 'First Usurpation'. Narsimha succeeded in restoring the lost prestige of the empire. However, the dynasty was shortlived, and power passed into the hands of Nasra Nayak.

THE SANGAMA DYNASTY

THE SANGAMA DYNASTY

Most of Bukka's life was spent in waging warfare against the Bahmanis. He died in 1379, and was succeeded by his son Harihara II (1379­1404). Harihara's reign saw the conquest of the whole of south India including Mysore, Kanara, Tiruchirapalli and Kanchi. After his death the kingdom was involved in a civil war after which one of his sons, Deva Raya I, became the king in 1406. NicoloConti, the Italian traveller, visited Vijayanagar in 1420. Deva Raya II came to the throne in 1422. He was perhaps the ~eatest ruler of this line. In his reign the empire extended to the most
distant south and even touched the shores of Ceylon. It was during his reign that the Persian traveller, Abdur Razzaq, visited Vijayanagar and was struck by its grandeur and prosperity.

DECCAN SULTANATE

DECCAN SULTANATE

Five independent kingdoms rose on the ruins of the Bahmani kingdom, namely Berar, Bidar, Ahmadnagar, Golconda and Bijapur.

BERAR It was the first province to break loose from the Bahmani kingdom when in 1484. Fathulla, the governor of Gowilgarh, revolted against Mahmud Bahmani. The dynasty he founded was called the Imad Shahi dynasty because he bore the title of Imad-ul-Mulk. His capital was at Elichpur. The dynasty lasted for about ninety years until 1574 when it was annexed by Ahmadnagar.

BIDAR Kasim Barid, a Turkish officer of Mahmud Shah Bahmani, made himself virtually independent about the year 1492 though he did nut assume the royal rank. His
son Amir Barid openly assumed an independent position in 1525. The third Sultan Ali Barid assumed the title of Shah. In about 1609 Bidar was absorbed by Bijapur.

AHMADNAGAR Founded by Malik Ahmad, son of Nizam-ul-Mulk, in the year 1490, the dynasty is known as the Nizam Shahi dynasty (as he assumed the title, Ahmad Nizam Shah). He also founded the city of Ahmadnagar and made it his capital. In 1565 the kingdom joined the con­federacy against Vijayanagar. After conqueririg Berar in 1574, Ahmadnagar was involved in a long drawn out warfare with the Mughals. In 1576, Akbar decided to invade Ahmadnagar but the fort was defended by Chand Bibi who purchased peace by surrendering Berar. Sh~ was later murdered by her own officers and the Mughals annexed Ahmadnagar (1600). The kingdom did not cease to exist but was governed by an Abyssinian minister named Malik Amber. He successfully defied the Mughals and freed Ahmadnagar (1610) Ahmadnagar was finally annexed by Shah Jahan in 1637.

GOLCONDA Founded by Quli Qutb Shah in 1512, the
dynasty is known as the Qutb Shahi dynasty. The kingdom of Golconda led a more or less isolated existence, taking only a minor part in the tangled politics of the Deccan. The first sultan of this dynasty, Qutb Shah transferred his capital from Warangal to Golconda. He was murdered in 1543. Ibrahim Adil Shah, who ascended the throne, was a tolerant monarch. He treated the Hindus well. His successor was Sultan Muhammad Quli. After his death in 1611. Golconda was involved in warfare with the Mughal empire. In 1687 the kingdom was annexed to the Mughal empire by Aurangzeb. .

BIJAPUR Out of the five kingdoms of the Deccan Sultanate, Bijapur was the most important. It was founded by Yusuf Adil Shah, who waged wars against Vijayanagar and his neighbours but his great achievement was the recovery of Goa from the Portuguese commander, Albu­querque, though the Portuguese retook it in 1510. He was succeeded by his minor son, Ismail Shah, who recovered Raichur Doab from Vijayanagar. During the reign of Ibrahim Adil Shah, the kingdoms of Golconda, Bidar and Ahmadnagar attacked Bijapur but it was well defended by its able minister Asad Khan. Ibrahim died in 1557 and was succeeded by his son, AU Adil Shah. Ibrahim Adil Shah n (1579-1626) was perhaps the greatest of the Adil Shahi kings. He was a good administrator and introduced a very efficient system of revenue settlement. He was tolerant of all creeds and faiths. He kept friendly relations with the Portuguese and allowed them to preach Christianity in his dominions.

VIJAYANAGAR
The origin of the kingdom of Vijayanagar is still a matter of controversy. According to tradition, the kingdom was founded by the five sons of Sangama of whom the two most prominent were Harihara and Bukka who reverted to Hinduism after having been converted to Islam. They were encouraged in their enterprise by two scholars, Madhava
Vidyaratmi. and his brother Sayana. Accord­ing to Father Heras, this kingdom was founded by the Hoysala king, Vira Bailala Ill. However, it seems certain that the king­dom owed its origin to a reaction to the devastating Muslim raids which threatened to overwhelm the Hindu civilisation in south­ern India. The capital of the kingdom was Hastinavati (Hampi).

THE BAHMANI KINGDOM (1347-1526)

THE BAHMANI KINGDOM (1347-1526)

The Bahmani kingdom was founded in 1347 by Hasan Gangu who revolted and proclaimed his independence from the Sultanate. He assumed the title of Ala-ud-din Bahmani (also Bahman Shah). Gulbarga was his capital. He divided his kingdom into four tarafs or provinces and placed each one under a tarafdar or governor. He was succeeded by Muhammad Shah I (1358-1373) whose reign was chiefly occupied in waging savage wars against Vijayanagar and Warangal. Some of the other notable rulers of the dynasty were: Firuz Shah (1397-1422) who twice defeated Vijayanagar but was ultimately defeated atPangul; Ahmad Shah (1422-1433) who conquered Warangal and shifted the capital to Bidar, and who was also known as Wali on account of his association with a sufi, Gesu Daraz; Humayun (1451-1461) famous for his minister, Khwaja Mahmud Gawan; Muhammad Shah ill (1463-1482) whose reign saw Mahmud Gawan expand the kingdom as never before.

In his campaign against Vijayanagar in 1481 he even reached and plundered Kanchi. He overran Dahlol and Goa on the western coast. However, Gawan was a Persian by birth and hence disliked by the 'Deccani' chiefs who were native. The Deccani party conspired against him and got him executed in 1481.
Gradually, the Bahmani kingdom declined in power till, in 152~, Amir Barid usurped the throne. Thus the dynasty came to an end.

Provincial Kingdoms after the Sultanate

The control of the Sultanate over a major part of India could not continue for long. The Deccan broke away in the reign of Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq itself. As the power of the Sultans declined further, several small kingdoms arose. In the Deccan arose two prominent kingdoms-the Bahmani and the Vijayanagar. These two kingdoms were continually fighting each other, the main causes of conflict being (I) rival claims on the Raichur Doab, a fertile bit of land between the Krishna and the Tungabhadra; (it) the desire on the part of the Vijayanagar kings to get hold of Golconda with its diamond mines; and (iii) rivalry in Marathwada. Besides, both kingdoms had ambitious rulers wanting control over the peninsula. It was only after long warfare which ex­hausted their resources that they decided to conclude a treaty.