POINTS TO REMEMBER

. The Bahmani and the Vijayanagar were the two great empires that arose in the Deccan after the end of the Sultanate.
. The control over Raichur Doab was the main issue which resulted in the long Bahmani-Vijayanagar struggle.
. The Bahmani kingdom was founded by Hasan Gangu
(later known as Bahman Shah) in 1347 with Gulbarga
as its capital.
. Ahmad Shah of the Bahmani kingdom shifted the capital
from Gulbarga to Bidar.
. Mahmud Gawan was the famous Bahmani prime min­
ister during the reign of Humayun.
. Berar, Bidar, Ahmadnagar, Golconda and Bijapur were
the five kingdoms that arose in the Deccan after the fall
of the Bahmani kingdom.
. The Nizam Shahi dynasty in Ahmadnagar was founded by Malik Ahmad, who adopted the title of Ahmad Nizam Shah. Malik Ahmad also founded the city of Ahmadnagar.
. Chand Bibi, who fought against the Mughals, and Malik
Amber, an Abyssinian minister, belonged to Ahmadnagar.
. The Qutb Shahi dynasty in Golconda was founded by
Quli Qutb Shah' in 1512, with Golconda as its capital.
. The Adil Shahi dynasty in Bijapur was founded by
Yusub Adil Shah. Ibrahim Adil Shah was the greatest
Adil Shahi king.
. The Vijayanagar dynasty was founded by Harihara and
Bukka with the aid of two scholars-Vidyaratna and
Sayana.
. Abdur Razzaq, a Persian traveller, visited Vijayanagar
during the rule of Deva Raya II.
. The Tuluva dynasty-to which Krishnadeva Raya be­
longed-in Vijayanagar was founded by Vira Narsirnha.
. Krishnadeva Raya gave Albuquerque, the Portuguese
ambassador, the permission to build a fort at Bhatkal.
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. Nicolo Conti visited Vijayanagar in 1420.
. The Vijayanagar forces were defeated at Bannihatti near
Talikota in 1565 by the joint forces of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and Bidar. With this defeat came the end of the Vijayanagar empire.
. The Aravidu dynasty of Vijayanagar was founded by
Thirumala after the battle of Talikota in 1565.
. The village self-government in Vijayanagar empire fol­
lowed the Chola traditions.
. The Sharqi dynasty in Jaunpur was founded by Malik
Sarwar. Shan:tS-ud-din Ibrahim (1401-1440) was the great­
est ruler of this dynasty. . Mahmud Khan founded the Khalji dynasty of Malwa. . Ahmad Shah I, who ruled Gujarat during 1411-1442,
founded the city of Ahmedabad.
. Rana Kumbha Karan (popularly known as 'Kumbha'), who ruled Mewar between 1538 and 1568, built the famous 'Victory Tower' or 'Vijaya Stambha' at Chittor to celebrate his victory over Malwa.
. Mewar recognised the Mughal suzerainty in the times
of Jahangir in 1615.
. Amber, ruled by the Kachhawaha Rajputs, was the first
Rajput state to accept Mughal overlordship.
. Shah Khan (1420-1470), who assumed the title of Zain­
ul-Abidin, is known as the "Akbar of Kashmir".
. The Mughal emperor Akbar annexed Kashmir from the
Chakk tribe in 1586.
. The Mahabharata was translated into Bengali under the
patronage of Ala-ud-din Hussain Shah, who ruled in
Bengal during 1493-1519.
. The Jagannath temple at Puri was built by Anantavarman
Choda Ganga (1076-1148).
. Govinda founded the Bhoi dynasty, which ruled up to
1559, in Orissa.
. Sukapha founded the rule of Ahoms, originally belong­
.ing to north Burma, in Kamarupa and Assam. SUhungmung, who reigned as Svarga Narayan, was the greatest Ahom king.
. In 1338, Malik Raja founded the Farukki dynasty in
Khandesh.
. The Gujarat architecture, a synthesis of Islamic and Jain
styles, was the most elegant of all provincial architec­
tures.
. The construction of Char Minar in Hyderabad is attrib­
uted to the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda.
. Meenakshi-Sundareshwara temple at Madurai was built
by Thirumalai Nayak of Vijayanagar in mid-17th cen­
tury.
. Malik Muhammad Jaisi, 'author of Padmavat, belonged
to Jaunpur, known as the 'Shiraz of the East'.
. Sayana, the commentator of the Vedas, lived in the courts
of Vijayanagar kings.
. 'Amuktamalyada' was written in Telugu by Krishnadeva
Raya. The Astadiggajas, a group of eight Telugu poets,
lived in the court of Krishnadeva Raya.
. Rana Kumbha of Mewar wrote commentaries on
Jayadeva's Gita Govinda and Chandishatak.
. Ahmad Shah I was the first and last ruler of Gujarat
who imposed jaziya on the Hindus.
. Ahmad Shah I of Bahmani is also called a saint, waU,
due to his association with Gesu Daraz, the famous sufi saint.
. Dalucha (a Mongol) ransacked Kashmir in 1320 and amassed a huge booty. This was the first incident wt1en the myth of the invincibility of Kashmir could be shattered.
. Nayalalr and ayagar systems were the backbones of the
Vijayanagar power.
. The Bahmani kingdom was divided.-into -tarafs (prov­
inces) headed by tarafdars.
. The Bahmani administration followed the administrative
structure of the Delhi Sultanate.
. The commander of the Bahmani army was called amir­
ul-umara.
. Kitab-i-Nauras, an authoritative book on music, was
written by the Bijapur Sultan, Ibrahim Adil Shah II, also
known as abla baba (Friends of the Poor) and Jagat Guru.
. The Nayakwaris were the important military-cum-Ianded
elements in the Qutb Shahi rule in Golconda.
. The growth of Urdu in its Dakhini form was a significant
development during the reign of Quli Qutb Shah, a
contemporary of Akbar.
. Ibrahim Rauza and Gol Gumbaz (largest single dome
ever constructed) are the most famous buildings con­
structed by the Adil Shahi rulers of Bijapur.

LITERATURE

Literature too was encouraged by these kingdoms. Jaunpur came to be known as the 'Shiraz of the East'. Malik Muhammad Jaisi, author of Padmavat, lived here. Mahmud Shah of Gujarat had Udayaraja as his court poet. The Bengal Sultans patronised Maladhar Basu ('Gunaraja Khan') who compiled Sri Krishna Vijaya. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah of Golconda wrote in Dakhini Urdu, Persian and Telugu.
The Vijayanagar kings were also patrons of Sanskrit and Telugu literature. Sayana, the famous commentator of the Vedas, and his learned brother Madhavacharya, were ministers of Bukka and his three immediate successors. Krishnadeva Raya was himself a poet and author of Amultamalyada in Telugu. In his court also flourished eight famous Telugu poets known as 'Astadiggajas'. His reign marked a new era in Telugu literature.

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS

ART AND ARCHITECTURE Of all the provincial styles that developed in architecture in the mid-14th century, the Gujarat style is the most elegant. The Gujarat rulers evolved a synthesis of Islamic and Jain styles. The characteristic features of this style include extensive use of pillar-and­lintel system, device (a clerestory or wall with series of windows) to admit light into the central pan of the hall­type mosque, semi-circular engrailed arch on two pillars, systematic use of graceful minarets and heavily sculpted buttresses, rich and delicate jali in arches, windows, etc. and frequent use of balconied windows. Some fine examples of this style are the Rani Rupmati (c. 1460) mosque and the tomb and mosque of Rani Sabrai or Rani Sarai (1514).

In architecture, the Malwa style is essentially accuratj Some of its featun:s are the skilful and elegant use of arc1 with pillar and beam, lofty terraces approached by Well proportioned stairways, impressive and dignified size of buildings and their fine masonry, frequent use of dom cupolas round a central dome and restrained ornamentation with pleasing colQur decoration. The minaret is absent' this style. Some famous monuments of this style are Ashr Mahal, Hindola Mahal, Jahaz Mahal, Baz Bahadur's Palac the Nilkanth Palace and Kaliadeh Mahal.

The Sharqi Sultans of Jaunpur created a fine style' architecture which was marked by lofty gates and hug arches. It was deeply influenced by the buildings of th
Tughlaq period. I The Kashmir style of Indo-Islamic architecture is dif~ ferent from other provincial styles in the use of timber a~ the main building material and in its Buddhist influence! The Deccan developed a distinct architectural style nt the 14th to 17th century. The first phase of the Deccan style] shows Tughlaq influence. Later it was influenced by the] building art of Persia. Mahmud Gawan's madrasa in Persian, style at Bidar is noteworthy. But of the five successors tOI the Bahmanis in the Deccan, the most noteworthy architectural terms were the Adil Shahi and Qutb Shahi.

Features special to the Adil Shahi architectural style are the three-arched facade, the bulbous dome almost spherical in shape, the graceful, tall and slender minaret, frequent use I of a masonry pier of considerable size instead of a pillar, substantial bold, projecting chhajjas or cornices, and ceilings that seem to be built without any apparent support as the slabs of stones are bound together by iron clamps and strong mortar. Also typical is the richly artistic stucco or stone carving. Outstanding monuments of the Bijapur style are the mausoleum of Ibrahim Adil Shah and that of Muhammad Adil Shah or the Gol Gumbaz which is said to possess the largest single dome. Bijapur court paintings rose to great heights under Ibrahim Adil Shah. Ibrahim Adil Shah II was deeply interested in music. He invoked Saraswati in his songs. He compiled the Kitab-i-Nauras and built a new capital, Nauraspur.

The Golconda or Qutb Shahi style is noted for the design and luxuriant ornament in stucco of the facade of buildings including minars and parapets. The Hindu influ­ence in this style is evident in its motifs of decoration; the architectural forms and artistic devices are, however, Per­sian. Notable Qutb Shahi monuments include the tomb of Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah and the stately gateway built by him, the Char Minar, in about 1591-92 in Hyderabad. In painting, the Golconda portraits show the royal taste in fruits and scented flowers.

The Vijayanagar rulers built numerous magnificent well-decorated palaces and temples. The Vitthalaswami I temple probably begun in 1513 and never completed is I considered the finest specimen of Vijayanagar architecture. It has the typical features such as the main temple's pillared halls, subsidiary shrines and elaborately decorated pillars. Other notable structures are the Hall of Dance at Lepakshi and the festival hall at Vellore.

While the grandeur of architecture dominates sculp­tural decoration in these Vijayanagar monuments, sculpture had an important part in the scheme of things. Sculptures of. this period are exemplified by large monolithic carvings. The reclining Nandi near the Lepakshi temple is believed to be the largest monolithic Nandi in the country. Even more impressive is a gigantic representation of seated 'Ugra Narsimha' at Vijayanagar.
The best preserved and famous paintings are those at the Virabhadra temple and the Lepakshi paintings, which are characterised by earth tones and the absence of primary colours in general. Realism does not seem to be the main concern in this painting style.

The Nayakas who rose on the fall of the Vijayanagar empire continued the artistic traditions of the Vijayanagar rulers. The most famous architectural landmark of the age is the Meenakshi-Sundareswara temple at Madurai, built largely in the time of Thirumala Nayak in mid-17th century. A major contribution of the Nayaka artists was the building of 'prakaramas', roofed ambulatory passageways, at many temples. Typically, a Nayaka 'prakarama' has massive col­umns with elaborate corbelled brackets and extensively carved (and sometimes painted) surfaces. One of the most famous of these passageways from the Nayaka period is at Rameswaram.


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KHANDESH

KHANDESH

The small kingdom of Khandesh in the valley of the Tapti became independent under Malik Raja in 1388. Its capital was Burhanpur. Its rulers are known as the Farukki dynasty. The ninth prince of this line Miran Muhammad Shah became, by succession, king of Gujarat in 1536. He died the next year and the two kingdoms again became separate entities. The kingdom was annexed by Akbar in 16Ol.

KAMARUPA AND ASSAM

KAMARUPA AND ASSAM

The history of the kingdom of Kamarupa till the thirteenth century is obscure. The Ahoms entered the Brahmaputra valley from north Burma and founded a kingdom in its eastern region in the first part of the thirteenth century. Sukapha was the founder of the dynasty. He extended the territory in the west at the cost of Kamarupa. The influence of Brahmanical Hinduism began to gain ground in Ahom in the early fifteenth century AD. Suhungmung (1497-1539) reigned as Svarga Narayan. The Ahom kingdom became the target of Mughal invasions in the seventeenth century.

ORISSA

ORISSA

The kingdom of Orissa was brought into prominence by Anantavarman Choda Ganga (1076-1148). He was a great conqueror and patron of art and literature. He built the famous Jagannath temple at Puri. He was succeeded by some able rulers who repulsed successive Turkish invasions until Firuz Shah Tughlaq invaded the state and desecrated the Jagannath temple at Puri. After a short time the Ganga dynasty was supplanted (1434) by a new dynasty (Suryavamsha) founded by Kapilendra (1434­1470). Kapilendra's dynasty was supplanted by the Bhoi dynasty (1542) which was founded by Govind. This dynasty ruled up to 1559 when it was overthrown by Mukunda Harichandra. After the death of Harichandra, Orissa was annexed to Bengal by Sulaiman (1568).

SMALLER KINGDOMS

SMALLER KINGDOMS

Among the smaller kingdoms that came up on the Sultanate's decline, Jaunpur and Bengal in the east and Malwa and Gujarat in the west are important. Besides, Kashmir was an independent kingdom in the north.

JAUNPUR Malik Sarw~r, with the title Malik-ush-Sharq, who was governor of Jaunpur from 1394, threw off the allegiance to the Delhi Sultanate in the confusion following Timur's invasion, and asserted independence.

Malwa

Gujrat

Rajasthan

Mewar

Marwar

Amber

Kashmir

Bengal